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Latest Printed Issue
2024, Vol.54 Num.10
Online: 2024-11-06
Article
Article
5
Zheng Linyi, Qian Wenrong
Impact of Population Ageing on Farmland Use: Analysis of Micro Farmers Based on Large Sample
Hot!
Population ageing is a global trend. As the country with the largest population and the largest elderly population in the world, China’s ageing population problem cannot be ignored. In recent years, the degree of population ageing in China has further gone up, and there has even been a rural-urban inversion in which the ageing of the rural population is higher than that of the urban area, faster than that of the urban area, regional differences are greater than that of the urban area, and the elderly population is larger than that of the urban area. Compared with urban areas, the problem of population ageing in rural areas is more serious, and its negative impact on agricultural production has become increasingly prominent. However, while the use of farmland is a fundamental and directional issue, most of the current literature focuses primarily on the impact of population ageing on agricultural production efficiency. Studies on the relationship between population ageing and farmland use are still relatively lacking. Based on a systematic review of relevant literature, this study takes the sample of farmers as the research object, adopts the latest published data of the China Rural Household Panel Survey in 2017 and 2019, and comprehensively employs the panel-ordered Logit model, panel multi-dimensional fixed effect model, moderation effect model and sub-sample regression method. Starting from the household level, it focuses on the overall effect and specific impact of rural population ageing on farmland use, and conducts an in-depth analysis of the underlying mediation mechanism and moderation mechanism, with a view to providing a reference for strengthening farmland use in the context of rural population ageing.Empirical studies have found that population ageing has a significant negative impact on farmland utilization as a whole, shifting farmland use from full cultivation to partial or even all uncultivated use. This conclusion still holds after a series of robustness tests such as transformation estimation methods and replacement of core explanatory variables. Specifically, the ageing of the rural population reduces the probability of total farmland cultivation by 2.8%, the probability of partial farmland cultivation increases by 2.5%, the probability of farmland rent-in decreases by 1.7%, the probability of total farmland abandonment increases by 1.0%, and the probability of partial farmland abandonment increases by 2.0%. However, due to the relatively insufficient demand for farmland transfer at this stage, population ageing has an insignificant impact on farmland rent-out. The mechanism analysis found that the ageing of the population leads to the above-mentioned changes in the use of farmland, mainly because, as the ageing of the family population deepens, the elderly in rural areas gradually withdraw from agricultural production due to the decline in physical fitness and the increase in pension income, and young and middle-aged workers are also forced to work abroad due to the increase in economic burden, resulting in an insufficient supply of rural agricultural labor. Simultaneously, terrain and agricultural machinery play a moderating role in the process of population ageing affecting farmland use. The impact of population ageing on farmland use is more severe in mountainous areas than in plains, and the application of agricultural machinery can reduce this negative impact to some extent. Extended analysis shows that shifting farmland use from cultivation to abandonment not only reduces farmers’ likelihood of planting grain crops, but also significantly reduces farmers’ grain output.Based on the above findings, this study proposes that in the future, the government should first improve the land transfer market, strictly prevent and curb farmland abandonment, thus solving the problem of having enough farmland. Secondly, it is essential to cultivate new agricultural operation entities, do a good job of intergenerational inheritance of agricultural management, thus solving the problem of no workers farming farmland. Finally, it is crucial to boost the market for agricultural mechanization services, strengthen the substitution of machinery for labor, and thus address the inefficient cultivation of farmland. Through these measures, we can effectively ensure food security in an aging population.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 5-20 [
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Qiu Tongwei, Qiao Zhiqian
Can Farming Population Aging Encourage Farmers’ Adoption of Agricultural Mechanization Services?
Hot!
In recent years, the sharp rise in agricultural production costs, particularly labor costs, has driven up a significant demand for labor-saving alternatives in China. This need is especially urgent given the ongoing aging of the agricultural workforce. For labor-intensive tasks in agriculture, mechanization appears to be a necessary response to the challenges posed by farming population aging (FPA). Agricultural mechanization services (AMS) are particularly appealing because they reduce the sunk costs associated with owning agricultural machinery for small farmers, thereby enhancing their access to such equipment. Moreover, AMS have a greater impact on improving agricultural productivity than self-owned machinery.The central question is whether the FPA will inevitably increase farmers’ demand for AMS. Logically, FPA could either heighten farmers’ demand for labor-saving AMS or decrease their demand by altering their factor allocation decisions. To investigate into the relationship between FPA and AMS, this article undertakes two key tasks. First, using data from the 2017-2021 China Household Finance Survey, the instrumental variable method is employed to identify the impact of FPA on farmers’ adoption of AMS. Second, the study examines why the effect of FPA on AMS development shifts over time, focusing on labor opportunity costs and market-oriented land transfers.The estimated results indicate that FPA significantly reduces both the adoption rate of AMS among farmers and the proportion of land area managed using AMS. Mechanism analysis reveals that rising opportunity costs of agricultural labor and the development of market-oriented land transfers exacerbate the inhibitory effect of FPA on AMS adoption. Further analysis suggests that improvements in the rural social security system and increased factor marketization intensify the negative correlation between FPA and AMS.The contributions of this article are twofold. First, it is the first to explore the inherent logic of how FPA suppresses farmers’ adoption of AMS. Internationally, scholars have primarily focused on how factors such as AMS prices, rural-urban migration, opportunity costs of agricultural labor, and the aging rural population motivate farmers to adopt AMS. However, there has been little exploration into the alternative behavioral choices induced by FPA and their inhibitory effects on AMS adoption. Particularly in the context of global population aging and the intensification of FPA, the development of AMS plays a crucial role in maintaining sustainable agricultural development, ensuring food security, and improving labor productivity. Yet, the combined effects of global population aging and FPA could exacerbate food shortages in developing countries. Second, this article offers valuable insights for future policy-making related to the development of the AMS market and timely responses to changes in market demand. As the Chinese government focuses on promoting AMS development, the evolving characteristics and demands of AMS market participants will impose new requirements on market supply, playing a critical role in shaping the supply mechanisms of the AMS market.The policy implications of this article are threefold. First, optimizing the implementation mechanisms of agricultural and operator subsidies is crucial to improving the labor productivity of active agricultural operators. Second, efforts should be made to accelerate the establishment of a reasonable land rent formation mechanism to prevent excessive marketization or inflated land transfer pricing, which could cause farmers to exit agricultural production prematurely and destabilize the AMS market and agricultural management system. Third, it is essential to expedite plans to enhance the quality of domestic agricultural machinery and establish regional multi-center specialized AMS organizations to mitigate the impacts of FPA.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 21-38 [
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Zhang Hongsheng, Du Yutong, Zhou Meitong, Wang Qian, Li Chuan
Cross-border E-commerce and Improvement of Export Technological Sophistication: Evidence from the Establishment of China Cross-border E-commerce Pilot Zones
Hot!
Amidst profound changes in both international and domestic situations, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China has made significant strategic arrangements to promote high-quality development in trade. The enhancement of product export technological sophistication, a key indicator for evaluating international division of labor status, stands as a pivotal objective in China’s pursuit of high-quality trade development. Cross-border e-commerce, characterized by its rapid development, enormous potential, and strong driving force in foreign trade, has gradually emerged as a new engine for advancing China’s foreign trade development. Given the paramount importance attached to the development of cross-border e-commerce by the Central Committee, the State Council has established 165 cross-border e-commerce pilot zones in seven batches since 2015, thus fostering a pattern of coordinated development both domestically and internationally. Existing literature has extensively explored the impact of policy experimentation on international trade and the means to enhance product export technological sophistication. However, there remains a lack of systematic theoretical elucidation and empirical analysis regarding the relationship between cross-border e-commerce and export technological sophistication. Consequently, questions arise: Can the establishment of cross-border e-commerce pilot zones positively influence the enhancement of product export technological sophistication? Through what mechanisms do cross-border e-commerce comprehensive pilot zones impact export technological sophistication? Is this impact consistent across different products and regions?Based on the panel data of HS-coded products from 2009 to 2019 across 30 provinces nationwide, this study employs a multi-period difference-in-differences method to investigate the influence of cross-border e-commerce comprehensive pilot zones on product export technological sophistication. The findings reveal that the establishment of China cross-border e-commerce pilot zones effectively enhances the technological sophistication of exported products. Furthermore, regarding the heterogeneous effects of the establishment of China cross-border e-commerce pilot zones, from the perspective of product types, the positive impact of cross-border e-commerce pilot zones on the technological sophistication of labor-intensive products is more evident. From the perspective of different levels of Internet penetration in regions, the impact of establishing cross-border e-commerce pilot zones on enhancing product export technological sophistication is more pronounced in regions with higher levels of Internet penetration. In terms of different levels of technological proficiency in regions, the establishment of cross-border e-commerce pilot zones has a more significant impact on enhancing the technological sophistication of products in regions with relatively backward technology levels. From the perspective of regional trade foundations, the impact of establishing cross-border e-commerce pilot zones on enhancing product export technological sophistication is more pronounced in regions with sound trade foundations. Finally, in terms of mechanisms, the establishment of cross-border e-commerce pilot zones can enhance product export technological sophistication by improving the quality of intermediate products and optimizing the business environment. The study makes contributions in three main aspects. Firstly, in theoretical terms, it systematically explores and elucidates the impact pathways and mechanisms of cross-border e-commerce development on the enhancement of product export technological sophistication, enriching theories and hypotheses in this field. Secondly, empirically, based on the HS2 product panel data from 2009 to 2019, this paper uses a multi-period difference-in-differences method to identify the impact of the establishment of cross-border e-commerce pilot zones on product export technological sophistication and conducts a series of empirical tests, enhancing the reliability and rigor of the conclusions. Lastly, in terms of policy recommendations, this paper confirms the remarkable effectiveness of cross-border e-commerce comprehensive pilot zones, providing guidance and policy support for the government to promote the growth and strengthening of cross-border e-commerce, thereby facilitating the continuous optimization and upgrading of enterprise import and export activities.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 39-61 [
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Zhang Siying, Sun Yanfei
Re-embedding of Surname Associations: A New Development of Kinship Networks in China
Hot!
Post-Mao China has witnessed not only the widespread resurgence of lineage organizations but also the rapid growth of same-surname associations, which transcend the blood ties and territorial foundations of traditional lineages. These surname associations in China draw on two distinct models: high-order lineage organizations, which developed during the late imperial China, and the surname associations prevalent among Chinese diaspora communities.These two models exhibit different institutional features and operational principles. Historical high-order lineage organizations unite lineage branches through explicit genealogical connections, the establishment of joint ancestral halls, and ancestor worship ceremonies. They adhere to hierarchical clan norms and forge alliances based on shared geographical interests. In contrast, overseas Chinese surname associations bring together individuals sharing the same surname, rather than collective lineage units. Membership in these associations is voluntary and does not require genealogical proof of shared ancestry. In other words, they are managed similarly as modern clubs. They actively seek to expand their networks globally, aiming at enhancing their capacity to provide economic benefits, educational assistance, and other resources to Chinese immigrants.Based on extensive fieldwork conducted since 2010 in a county in western Guangdong Province, this article reveals a new development among surname associations in China. Initially, the Wang Surname Association (WSA, the focus of our study) emulated overseas Chinese surname associations, functioning as an “elite club” primarily comprising retired officials and entrepreneurs. Its goal was to broaden networks beyond blood ties and territorial boundaries. However, a significant transformation occurred after 2014. During the construction of a joint ancestral hall for all Wang lineage branches in the county, the WSA adopted traditional clan rites reminiscent of historical high-order lineage organizations, thereby strengthening its ties to village-based lineage networks. This shift transformed the WSA from a trans-local network of affluent and influential elites into a hybrid organization that, while still connecting elite members, became more entrenched in local society and engaged with people from different social strata. This re-embedding can be attributed to its leadership, which is primarily composed of local retired officials whose social circles are confined to the county.The evolution of the WSA illustrates the social implications of re-embedding surname associations. On the one hand, this process reinforces members’ affiliation and delineates the group’s boundaries, endowing it with characteristics reminiscent of historical high-order lineage organizations. On the other hand, it retains significant traits of its overseas counterparts, such as voluntary membership, a resource-exchange platform, and a strong intent to expand its network. However, with the establishment of the joint ancestral hall, participation is limited to individuals residing nearby, effectively restricting the WSA’s influence to the county.The re-embedding of surname associations, as exemplified by the WSA, contributes to a deeper understanding of how traditional institutions like clans and popular religion can experience revival as well as reinvention in rapidly changing modern China. It also reveals the evolving interests and power dynamics among social actors and the shifts in social structures of local societies during periods of social transformation.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 62-80 [
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Ma Yuqi, Zhang Weiwen
Can Inter-governmental Cooperation Improve Urban Capital Misallocation? From the Perspective of Network Embeddedness
Hot!
Motivated by the traditional path of “competition for growth”, local governments in pursuit of maximizing economic benefits within their jurisdictions usually employ competitive strategies. These strategies, such as local protectionism and market segmentation, impede the flow of capital and other production factors across administrative borders, resulting in capital misallocation and hindering the profound progress of regional economic integration. Therefore, inter-governmental cooperation emerges as a critical catalyst for advancing regional economic integration by facilitating efficient and equitable resource allocation among cities.Despite its significance, empirical research on how inter-governmental cooperation can improve capital misallocation remains sparse. The prevailing discourse on inter-governmental cooperation tends to focus on the existence or number of “relationships”, with little consensus on definitive conclusions. To fill this research gap, this paper introduces the theoretical framework of network embeddedness, examining the effects of inter-governmental cooperation on capital misallocation from two dimensions of network embeddedness: relational embeddedness and structural embeddedness. Relational embeddedness captures the number of cooperative relationships a city involves within the network, while structural embeddedness reflects the city’s network position.Utilizing cooperation news spanning from 2009 to 2020, this paper constructs an inter-governmental cooperative network encompassing 27 central cities in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), which is one of the most dynamic and integrated regions in China. Employing social network analysis metrics, relative degree centrality and eigenvector centrality, this paper gauges the levels of relational embeddedness and structural embeddedness of cities in the inter-governmental cooperative network. Subsequently, a panel threshold model is formulated to explore the nonlinear relationship between these forms of embeddedness and urban capital misallocation. The main findings of the panel threshold model are as follows.Firstly, relational embeddedness in cooperative network has a negative impact on capital misallocation, highlighting that robust and frequent cooperation bolsters the efficiency of capital allocation. Secondly, this effect diminishes as structural embeddedness surpasses a certain threshold, suggesting that once a city’s position in the network reaches a critical point, the positive impact of relational embeddedness becomes constrained. Thirdly, mechanism analysis reveals that while an increase in structural embeddedness can elevate a city to a more advantageous network position, it simultaneously casts a “cluster shadow”, implying higher transaction costs and cooperation risks that impede the ongoing enhancement of urban industrial efficiency and, by extension, the rectification of capital misallocation.The above findings deepen our understanding of the complex dynamics between relational and structural embeddedness and local government cooperation strategies. Notably, we emphasize the potential risks associated with specific cooperation strategies that prioritize securing “elite” partners and improving network position. Such strategies have the unintended consequence of distorting factor resource prices, which is not conducive to the continuous improvement of urban capital allocation efficiency. In essence, a city’s advantageous position within the inter-governmental cooperative network does not inherently ensure its long-term competitive viability. Therefore, to promote high-quality integration of regional economy, it is crucial for policymakers to achieve incentive compatibility between orderly competition and beneficial cooperation among local governments, prioritizing cooperation strategies that foster regional equality.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 81-96 [
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Lu Xingfu, Liu Jiwei
Value Incommensurability and the Handling of Hard Cases with Substantive Disputes
Hot!
Value incommensurability originally meant that different values cannot be placed on the same cardinal scale, and later it was generally referred to as non-conventional comparative relations, including the narrow sense of incommensurability, hard choices, strong value superiority, weak value superiority and pluralism of irreducible value. Hard cases with substantive disputes are related to a broad usage of value incommensurability called hard choices. In order to correctly understand them and provide standardized suggestions for the settlement of corresponding hard cases, it is necessary to further clarify the related concepts of incommensurability, the classification of hard cases and how to respond to hard cases by reasoning.The hardship of hard choices manifests itself in the depletion of reasons as caused by the multi-dimensional comparison of values, for which there are three explanations: semantic indeterminacy, metaphysical indeterminacy and uncertainty. The explanations of indeterminacy deny that there is a uniquely right answer for hard cases. In contrast, the explanation of uncertainty argues the uniquely right answer exists but people may not find it or mistake it due to ignorance. From the point of view of rationality, it is correct to deny it. Because of the existence of substantive disputes, the corresponding hard cases cannot be solved by flipping a coin. Policymakers have to make a choice in recognition of the fact that both options are right.The classification of hard cases with substantive disputes is based on the classification of hard choices, which is related to the pluralism about value properties. The three most important values related to practical reason are moral, prudent and aesthetic. Hard cases mainly involve moral and prudent. Therefore, hard cases can be divided into hard cases caused by prudent conflicts, hard cases caused by moral conflicts and hard cases caused by the incommensurability between moral and prudent. The latter two kinds of cases related to moral value are more important in theory. Hard cases with substantive disputes mainly refer to the hard cases caused by moral conflicts.In dealing with hard cases, case consistency should be taken as the core reasoning method to distinguish the substantive disputes from the superficial disputes and to reveal value conflicts. In the absence of uniform decision-making, policymakers should respect subjectivity and diversity as much as possible. If a uniform decision-making is necessary, the compromise strategy can best guarantee the fairness. If none of the above strategies is suitable, the policymakers must make a biased choice. At this time, some strategies with strong subjectivity or obvious favoritism should not be adopted, instead, there should be some kind of generalized procedural resolution strategy that recognizes the existence of conflicts. For example, in a strategy to avoid future conflicts, even if the choice is biased, it is still reasonable for policymakers to say that they prefer a procedural decision-making strategy to favoring one side over the other. In most cases, the strategy of strengthening one side’s argument and weakening the other side’s argument is unavoidable, but arbitrary strengthening and weakening will lead to the danger of disunity of methods. It seems feasible and necessary to pursue a consistent preference for a procedural approach.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 97-109 [
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Hu Congpei
Application Status and Effect Improvement of Procuratorial Guiding Cases
Hot!
Since the Supreme People’s Procuratorate issued the Provisions of the Supreme People’s Procuratorate on Case Guidance in 2010, many procuratorial guiding cases have been released. However, their application status has been unsatisfactory. In this context, it is of great practical and theoretical significance to explore the reasons behind the poor application status of these cases through empirical studies and theoretical interpretation and, on this basis, to put forward suggestions for improvement and enhancement.In the revision of the Provisions of the Supreme People’s Procuratorate on Case Guidance by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate in 2019, the binding force of procuratorial guiding cases was changed from “may refer to” to “shall refer to”. Thus, it is both important and necessary to reflect on the logic behind the change in binding force. In terms of the nature of norms, procuratorial guiding cases serve not only as adjudicative norms but also as behavioral norms. In terms of the strength of binding force, procuratorial guiding cases are a defeasible source of “law as it ought to be”. In terms of value functions, procuratorial guiding cases have a series of important functions, such as extending the denotations of the types of sources of law, limiting prosecutorial discretion, and promoting public recognition of procuratorial functions. Therefore, we should stress the application of procuratorial guiding cases in judicial practice and fully recognize their role.However, through empirical analysis of the themes, subjects, content, and results of procuratorial guiding cases cited in judicial practice, we find that they face specific practical application dilemmas, such as low case coverage rate, low explicit citation rate, low normative citation rate, and low citation application rate. These dilemmas are mainly caused by the following three reasons: (1) Internal reason: The types, quantity, and quality of procuratorial guiding cases need to be improved. (2) Institutional reason: Related supporting institutions are insufficient to support the functions of procuratorial guiding cases. (3) Methodological reason: The methods for citing procuratorial guiding cases are immature.As can be concluded from the above analysis, in addition to abandoning the wrong cognition of procuratorial guiding cases and developing a sound systematic case-based reasoning methodology, we should focus on institutional perfection and methodological improvement in five aspects: (1) Quantity guarantee: create a “three-in-one” group of procuratorial cases, consisting of ordinary cases, typical cases, and guiding cases. (2) Quality guarantee: improve the generation and elimination mechanisms of procuratorial guiding cases to strictly add new cases and take out outdated ones. (3) Institutional guarantee: improve the institutions providing support to procuratorial guiding cases; establish a mechanism of “interpreting laws with cases” for the analysis and reasoning of adjudicative instruments; and advocate a system of “openness to the largest degree” for procuratorial work. (4) Methodological improvement: emphasize the application of typological thinking, in addition to the method of similarity judgment, when establishing and citing procuratorial guiding cases. (5) Digital procuratorate: although AI is incapable of completely replacing humans in fulfilling judicial duties, digital technology can nevertheless play an important role in assisting legal professionals, including prosecutors, judges, and lawyers. In this sense, we also need to strengthen the use of digital technology in facilitating the application of procuratorial guiding cases in judicial practice.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 110-126 [
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Feng Quangong
“Six Principles” of Literary Translation Derived from Xie He’s “Six Principles” of Painting
Hot!
Translation theories with Chinese characteristics refer to those that are based on discursive and theoretical resources in traditional Chinese philosophy, aesthetics, literary theories, painting theories, calligraphy theories,
kongfu
culture and so on. These resources are increasingly emphasized by translation scholars in China in the context of promoting the confidence of Chinese literati in Chinese theories and cultures. Relevant achievements like compositional translatology put forward by Pan Wenguo, harmonizing heterogenesis translatology put forward by Wu Zhijie, Yi-Translatology by Chen Dongcheng and so on are rather noteworthy by tapping into resources from traditional Chinese philosophy and literary theories.Traditional Chinese painting theories are also well-developed and might shed some light on constructing translation theories with Chinese characteristics. Fu Lei’s “similarity in spirit” (
shensi
）, which originates from traditional Chinese painting theory, is a telling example. Xie He’s “six principles” of painting written about 1,500 years ago are also highly relevant to literary creation and translation, but up to now little attention has been paid to his painting theory by translation scholars. Thus, this paper tries to transplant Xie He’s “six principles” of painting into literary translation by endowing them with some different connotations, hoping to make a little contribution to the construction of translation theories with Chinese characteristics. The first principle “vitalizing force and charm” (
qiyun shengdong
) is commonly regarded as the ultimate aim of traditional painting, which places emphasis on the overall esthetic effect of painting. The other five principles like “reproduction and imitation” (
chuanyi moxie
), “lean brushwork”
(gufa yongbi
), “arrangement of position” (
jingying weizhi
) are specific ways to realize the ultimate aim.When transplanted in literary translation, the first principle “vitalizing force and charm” means to ensure the translated work is an organic whole infused with literary force (
wenqi
) or with high literariness by the translator. The literary force of the translated work derives both from the original author and the translator, and consequently is a fusion of their creative efforts. “Reproduction and imitation”, regarded as the second principle, is almost completely compatible with literary translation which is always viewed as an art of reproduction. Apart from faithful reproduction, this principle also demands the translator’s creativity and adaptive skills. The third principle “lean brushwork” in literary translation metaphorically refers to the writing style (
wenbi
) of the translator as is shown in the translated work, which is always a fusion of the author and the translator’s style, whether the translator is conscious of it or not. The fourth principle “arrangement of position” concerns the reproduction or rearrangement of structure of the whole work, its paragraphs, its sentences, phrases and words, placing emphasis on the adherence to conventions of target poetics in order to satisfy the needs of target readers. The fifth principle “depicting shapes according to real things” (
yingwu xiangxing
) mainly involves the reproduction of the iconicity in the original work, like iconicity in sound, number, order and shape etc. The last principle “using different colors according to different things” (
suilei fucai
) metaphorically refers to the intentional enhancement of emotional atmosphere, rhetorical effects and the like in the original work. It should be noted that these “six principles” can be applied not only in literary translation practice but also in literary translation criticism. In both fields, the translator’s adaptive creativity, which is not necessarily in conflict with faithfulness, should be encouraged and recognized.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 127-136 [
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Gao Fen, Ye Xiaojuan
Construction, Deconstruction and Reconstruction of the Western Concept of “Femininity”
Hot!
The concept of “femininity” in the West carries a multi-facet and progressive understanding of women’s social identity, gender characteristics, body style and spirit of life. Its connotations can be sorted out from the three stages of construction, deconstruction and reconstruction in patriarchal culture, feminist movement and criticism, and interdisciplinary research. In order to maintain the hegemonic position of men, patriarchal culture constructs the subordinate, accompanying and normative characteristics of femininity from the perspectives of social reality, literary fiction and ideology, and divides them into “emphasized femininity”, “hegemonic femininity”, “pariah femininity”, “subordinate femininity” and so on, to celebrate subordinate femininity and devalue autonomous femininity. Feminist movement and criticism have both gone through developmental stages of deconstructing and constructing femininity. Feminist movement takes social reality as its object of study, which attacks the status quo of inequality between men and women, and criticizes and denies the femininity constructed by patriarchy, and calling for attention to the gender differences between men and women. Feminists, on the basis of post-structuralist and Western Marxist theories, articulate the view that femininity is not externally imposed but is manifested by the female body, pointing out that the physical and cultural characteristics of women that patriarchy defines as “deficient” and “lacking” are precisely the manifestations of femininity. British and American feminist criticism and French feminist criticism take literary works as the object of study, and through analyzing female image and female writing, they respectively elucidate the transmutation process of femininity from self-sacrifice to self-fantasy and self-escape to self-construction and the qualities of female discourse such as ecriture feminine and parler-femme. Interdisciplinary research has not only provided a general overview of femininity in terms of physical appearance, ethical orientation, caring and nurturing abilities, psychological and personality traits, but also provided in-depth ethical, spatial, and psychological reconstructions of the characteristics of femininity. From the ethical dimension, academics have put forward the idea that the ethics of caring and the ethics of virtue are the core elements of femininity, affirming the importance of women’s virtues of caring, empathy, and altruism so as to break through the limitation of femininity that is confined to the body, and to examine in depth the value of women’s personalities and thoughts. From the spatial dimension, academics have analyzed the important role of the domestic space as the basis for the reconstruction of women’s images and identities, and have proposed that the domestic space be regarded as a culturally valuable place as a means of enhancing the identification of the social nature of femininity. From a psychological perspective, the concept of “conscious femininity” has been proposed to reveal the intuitive, perceptive and harmonious features of the female psyche and its value, and to deepen the understanding of the female psyche and mind. The construction, deconstruction and reconstruction of the concept of “femininity” illustrate the development of the Western understanding of gender from social to cultural to spiritual. By examining the historical origin and cutting-edge progress of the concept of “femininity” from social, historical, cultural, literary, gender, ethical, spatial, and psychological perspectives, and by revealing its constructive nature, we can not only reassess the achievements and value of feminist thought and criticism, but also recognize the necessity and importance of interdisciplinary research on feminism, gender studies, and literary criticism.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 137-149 [
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Zhong Yao
Poetics and Connotations of “Wugong Style”
Hot!
The “Wugong Style” is a significant genre in the poetry circles of the Late Tang Dynasty, which can be attributed to the tradition of “reclusive official” poetry or regarded as a form of “leisurely poetry”. Since the Song Dynasty, the joint reference to “Yao Jia” has, to some extent, obscured the unique poetic form and cultural connotations of the “Wugong Style” under the broad backdrop of the “arduous chanting” poetics.In fact, Yao He’s “Wugong Style” is a product of the prevailing sentiment among the elite literati, represented by the Jinshi group, who looked down upon minor officials as common clerks during the Middle and Late Tang Dynasty. The demeanor of lazy, negligence and seclusion presented in this style takes the free-spirited ethos of the Wei and Jin Dynasties’ celebrities as its spiritual core. This attitude of a celebrity is less of a true portrayal of Yao He himself and more of an ideal aesthetic personality that stands in contrast to the personality of a “vulgar clerk”. It is in this sense that the “Wugong Style” returns to the essence of the “reclusive official” tradition.Beyond the celebrity demeanor, the evolution of the “Wugong Style” is also reflected in the prominence of the “chanting poetry” element and poet as the subject. This prominence corresponds to the increasing popularity of poetry and poetic prose in the Jinshi examinations, with poetry serving as the connecting link. The image of the “worldly official” is thus refined, and the “chanting poetry” element becomes one of the significant characteristics of the “Wugong Style”. The interactions with Jia Dao, who represents the arduous chanting school, reveal similarities between the poetry of Yao and Jia in terms of indulgence in poetry, spiritual interests, and even artistic style, which is why they are jointly referred to as “Yao Jia”.In terms of creative methods, it follows the celebrities’ approach of “casually playing a tune”, using simple and straightforward language, sometimes interspersed with colloquial expressions, thus presenting a style distinct from Jia Dao’s school known as “sparse and wild”. This style, which is inherited from the thatched cottage poetry tradition and intertwined with the contemporary ethos, serves to correct the excessive rigidity of the Tang people’s modernist forms, especially the “arduous chanting” school. This is also where the poetic and historical significance of the “Wugong Style” lies.
2024 Vol. 54 (10): 150-160 [
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