Does Adam Smith play an essential role in the history of political philosophy？Most political philosophers give a negative answer. Even though Isaiah Berlin in his classic essay ''Two Concepts of Liberty'' says that Adam Smith ''believed that social harmony and progress were compatible with reserving a large area for private life over which neither the State nor any other authority must be allowed to trespass,'' he provides Smith with a position opposite to that of Thomas Hobbes in the hi story of political philosophy. But when Joseph Cropsey comes to Adam Smith in The History of Political Philosophy , coedited with Leo Strauss, he comments that Smith's ''fame now rests upon the foundation he laid for the science of economics. In all of this there is not much of political philosophy to be seen, the close conjunction of economics and political philosophy, even or perhaps especially if tending toward the eclipse of latter, is a powerful fact of political philosophy|the men, like Smith, who were responsible for it would have a place in chronicle of political philosophy on that ground alone,'' and concludes that Adam Smith plays a negative and uncentral role in the history of political philosophy. Besides,in his Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy , John Rawls says little about Smith. In A Theory of Justice , Rawls mentions Smith only when he criticizes utilitarianism. He does discuss Smith's ideas like ''invisible hand,'' ''impartial spectator'' and ''selfcommand,'' but they secure no significant position for Smith in political philosophy. In a word, except Berlin, these main scholars of political philosophy don’t accept that Adam Smith plays an essential role in the history of political philosophy. In the light of classic metaphors as ''impartial spectator,'' ''economic man,'' ''invisible hand'' and ''night watchman,'' Adam Smith suggests an enlightenment utopia about civil society. These metaphors have such a seminal impact in the history of political philosophy that Hegel's ''die List der Vernunft,'' Carl Marx's ''community of freeman,'' Ronald Dworkin's ''Heracles,'' Richard Rorty's ''liberal ironist'' and Robert Nozick's ''minimal state'' all bear some intellectual origin. So different from those scholars mentioned above, we conclude that Adam Smith holds some central role in the history of political philosophy. ''Adam Smith problem'' is another topic to be discussed in the paper. Recently,Professor Luo Weidong of Zhejiang University suggests a new version of ''Adam Smith problem'' and calls it ''Adam Smith enlightenment paradox.'' Based on a comparative study on the meanings of Smith's key sentences in The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments , we find that there is no such a paradox between the two works. Individuality with sympathy, free market, decent society and limited government are the four elements that construct a basic frame for Smith to explore his utopia of civil society. It is clear that Smith has an intellectual turn from philosophical ethics to political economy. Even though Smith in the last year of his life made many revisions in his last version of The Theory of Moral Sentiments , those revisions still do not change his main stance on civil society.  In 1901, when The Wealth of Nations was first translated into Chinese, accompanied with Charles Darwin's and John S. Mill's works or ideas, Smith was one of first three modern western thinkers being introduced to the Chinese people. These great thinkers played essential roles in the modern Chinese enlightenment, and among them Smith was the first one who had a special sentiment towards China, studying China society comprehensively and providing accurate comments on China -- as a closed and traditional nation state. As Richard Rorty suggests, there are two enlightenment programs, one is philosophical, aiming at Truth|the other is political, aiming at Freedom. When the philosophical plan fails, the political one should continue. Now China is increasingly open to the world,and when we take Adam Smith's advice more seriously than before, it will make a new and even essential intellectual contribution to the construction of civil society in China today.

Organization is an important way of living of human society. We live in all sorts of organizations, from family, lineage to village, corporation and ethnic group. Our identity and pursuit have to be achieved via organizations which we belong to. Anthropology has paid attention to organization for a long time. Generally speaking, two approaches have been employed to study it in Anthropology: social approach and cultural approach. The social approach considers organization to be a system like a society, within which every part has its own function and the interrelations among those parts and the way of their functioning make the organization structure. With the development of this discipline, the social approach was criticized for ignoring the ritual and symbolic aspects of organization. Therefore, the cultural approach quietly emerged in 1960s and culture has since become the main focus. The focus on Culture distinguishes anthropology form those disciplines which take efficiency, technology, institution, strategy and power as their concern. Admittedly, the influences of political and economic factors on organization are undeniable, but the cultural aspect should never be taken for granted, especially in the process of organization transition, during which the role of culture has been highlighted. Furthermore, researchers interested in organization often ascribe the origin of the conception of culture to anthropology, but discussions on the specific connection between culture and organization are rather rare in the field of Anthropology. Therefore, it is essential to make the connection clarified from the anthropological view. The thesis starts with a literature review on the ″culture″ conceptions of different anthropological schools, attempting to track the development of this conception in the history of anthropology. Second, it gives outlines of the two research areas which have been developed by the introduction of culture conception into organization study, that is study of organization and study of ″culture as organization.″ The presentation of applied practices at the end is the highlight and innovation of this paper. For more than a decade, Zhuang Kongshao and his team has been combining the perspective of ″organization as culture″ with the practical researches on organization among Han society. Their intensive understanding of the cultural meanings of organizations has thus been applied into a number of projects, which have identified the quasi-familism model in Chinese family enterprises, foreign company Amway (China) and organizations of female sex workers of Han ethnic group. On the contrary, the lack of such quasifamilism model in organizations formed by female sex workers from ethic minorities in China not only illustrates the relation between this model and Han society, but also brings about the clues of ethnic culture upon organization. In years of regular academic field observation , besides providing in-depth interpretation of various cultural metaphors of organizational process, Chinese anthropologists have also been involved into areas of public health, company distribution and structuring. They have explored the implications of culture as root metaphor and identified the features of interaction among different ethnic groups, with an aim to find out the possibility of applying cultural interpretation into practice and to make achievements both in theories and in practices.

Research on community relationships in mixed small-population ethnic groups has been an important tradition of social anthropology in the West .It tends to exaggerate the conflicts and boundaries between groups and draw ideological conclusions with obvious dualistic″self″and ″other″binary,which has led to the misunderstanding and misleading of human relationships . Based on my five-year participant-observation and study on the oral materials,this paper aims to summarize the structural characteristics between the ethnic groups through an ethnographical analysis of a mixed community,and to explore the attributes that reflect the multi-layer subjectivities and the symbiosis of the ethnic groups .This paper thus strives to reveal a cognitive paradigm corresponding to the human existence that goes beyond dualistic and separatist understanding . In a historical perspective,we find that the formation of the symbiosis pattern had deep material drive,and that the complementary symbiosis was the logic foundation for pluralism to turn to an organic whole .In the process of cognitive,emotional and ethical interactions between ethnic groups,the shared inter-ethnic domain of symbiosis came into being,which implies the inherent requirements for the groups to spontaneously forma unity of their existences and values . Once the ethnic symbiotic structure stabilized in both senses of time and space under certain material conditions,it can provide a set of symbol systems under which people can operate,and especially when ethnic groups appear as emotional subjects,an adjusting mechanism can play an important role between the symbiotic groups . It is certain that close contacts between ethnic groups do not mean assimilation or perishing of a certain group . On the contrary,heterogeneity is even more required for the ethnic subjectivities in the symbiotic structure .We also start to realize that the process of ethnic symbiosis is different from the process of a single ethnic group's development,but is synchronous optimization and common development between groups .At the same time,ethnic symbiosis is not only a process that produces new patterns of symbiosis but also forms a new material structure so as to promote the ethnic relations to a higher orderly level . An even richer content of ethnic harmony has gone beyond the pages here .What we can achieve in this paper is to summarize general principles of theoretical reconstruction that can better deal with the relationship between particularity and universality .It is well known that the complexity of globalization has brought new challenges for us to construct harmonious ethnic relations that require researchers to pursue good academic inquiry and scientific research methods in order to grasp and interpret the ethnic relations and their microscopic behaviors,and to provide a reasonable perspective and method for the construction of harmonious ethnic relations .This paper is our effort in this direction .

The industrial development in western China and the industrial structure adjustment in eastern China are both closely related to inter-regional industry transfer. During the process of regional industrial development and inter-regional industry transfer, environmental problems related to differences in environmental policies have become increasingly prominent. It can be observed that, on the one hand, the issue of environmental pollution in the western region is more severe than that in the eastern region; on the other hand, the ratios of high-tech industry and GDP of the eastern region have been increasing year by year compared with those in the western region. It can be demonstrated to a large extent that the phenomenon and trend of "pollution moving westward, high-tech industry shifting eastward, and the value of industrial output agglomerating in the eastern region" have emerged. In response to this phenomenon and trend, the existing literature has attached more attention to "pollution moving westward" rather than make any integrated analysis of the relevant phenomenon like "high-tech industry shifting eastward." However, this paper, based on the New Economic Geography (NEG) paradigm, offers a unified explanation for this phenomenon by looking at the differences in regional environmental policies and regional industry transfer and taking full account of agglomeration economy and transport cost. For this purpose, this paper constructs a two-region, two-department and two-factor model, and further divides the manufacturing sector into high-pollution and low-pollution industries. This research shows that as long as the differences in environmental policies exist between the less-developed region and developed region, even if the difference is minor, there is only one stable equilibrium form: low-pollution industry agglomerates in the developed region while high-pollution industry is distributed in both regions, but mainly in the less-developed region. In other words, the regional industrial structure is very sensitive to differences in the environmental policy. The reason for this is that low marginal cost drives high-pollution industry to agglomerate in the less-developed region where the environmental policy is loose. The agglomeration of high-pollution industry in turn eventually drives low-pollution industry to agglomerate in the developed region through inter-industry demand substitution effects, even though the low-pollution industry is not in an inferior position in the less-developed region. However, due to the relatively small proportion of environmental costs in the production costs of enterprises, the geographical distribution of the manufacturing sector is not sensitive to the differences in environmental policies. Further welfare analysis indicates that owing to the presence of the agglomeration economy, the developed regions have enjoyed a higher level of welfare while the less-developed region has to accept most of the high-pollution enterprises in the regional industrial transfer caused by the differences in environmental policies and has to suffer the welfare losses related to environment pollution. The policy implication of this paper is very clear. On the one hand the low-threshold environmental policies in the less-developed region will dramatically change the industrial structure of the two regions, strongly expel low-pollution "clean" industry, and at the same time attract a large number of high-pollution "contaminative" industries to agglomerate in less-developed regions. On the other hand, the regional policy of lowering the environmental standards in exchange for value of industrial output is actually of no help in increasing the regional share of manufacturing production or promoting local economic development.

There is a″lanjie″(拦截) conceptual field in Chinese which means″force mobile content to stop going;do not let go through .″The conceptual field was covered by such words as″e″ (遏),″yao″(邀),″zhe″(遮),″lie″(迾)and″zu″(阻) in the Pre-Qin Dynasty,and then words like″lan″ (拦),″jie″(截),″d uan″(断) and so on appeared in the Wei,Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties .The Song Dynasty turned up″dang″(挡),″ba″(把),″zha″(闸),but in modern Chinese,people basically say″lan″(拦),″d ang″(挡),″jie″(截) .It's found that for these encoding lexical members,three different alternations in the history of Chinese language are crucial and worth noting : 1) Around the Western Han Dynasty,the word″zhe″(遮) came to be used and frequently compared with″e″(遏) and″yao″(邀),which used to be the main words before the Pre-Qin Period and were compelled out of this semantic field no later than the Northern-southern Dynasties,which can be used as the first verb constitute in the medieval emerging statements .But the use of ″e″(遏),″yao″(邀) was only used in a language domain,the lexical field was gradually narrowed . 2)″L an″(拦) began to prevail over″zhe″(遮) during the Tang and the Five Dynasties,and replaced it eventually with″jie″in the Song Dynasty .In strong oral speaking corpus,cases of the use of″lan″(拦),″jie″(截) increased gradually,the lexical field was expanded,with the emerging grammar components in the Song Dynasty,such as the dynamic auxiliary word″zhe″(着);and the resulting complement″z hu″(住) .The leading position of″z he″(遮)in its lexical system was replaced by the meaning″cover an object .″″Z he″(遮) began to be more frequently used with fixed tremolo combinations,but rarely used with emerging grammatical components . 3) By the Yuan and Ming Dynasties,″d ang″(挡) turned to be used in the rising tone .It developed a specific performance and also became a dominant member in this field .The new glyph of″dang″(挡) appeared,which was divided from″d ang″(当),not only the single frequency was more than″jie″(截),but also the syntactic combination with″lan″(拦),″jie″(截) had the similar features .What's more,the patient objects such as″arrow/cold/rain/wind″is exactly what the ″lan″(拦) and″jie″(截) lacked .

Based on literature review instead of traditional phonological study,the author proposes a new point of view that Zhu Yuanzhang's explanation for the concept of ''Zhongyuan'' (Central China) and its later variation eventually led Nanjing dialect,representative of Jianghuai dialects,to become the basic dialect of Mandarin Chinese in Ming Dynasty.Before and after his founding of Ming Dynasty in 1368,Zhu Yuanzhang reinterpreted the concept of ''Zhongyuan'' to show the reasonableness of his rule,the justification of choosing the site of new capital,and the reasons for the restoration of ancient civilized ritual system of Han Nationality.He held that ''Zhongyuan，''a different concept at different times,was just a good name for being the reigning monarchs' hometown,the place of victory and the site of capital,and that due to the rules of north minorities,such traditional Central China areas as Luoyang and Xi'an had been barbarianized and only his hometown Lin Hao deserved the name of ''Zhongyuan.'' His ministers Song Lian et al.embodied the views of Zhu Yuanzhang when they were ordered to compile the rhyming dictionary Hongwu Zhengyun so that Hongwu Zhengyun nearly coincides with the poems of Ming Taizu Ji in rhyme,which indicates that the so-called ''Zhongyuan Yayin'' (elegant accent of Central China) is actually the dialect of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's hometown.Later,in order to establish Nanjing as the capital of Ming Dynasty,Zhu Yuanzhang pointed out in his article ''Yuejianglou Ji'' that ''Jiangzuo areas were the center of China'' and Nanjing was the real ''Zhongyuan'' as it was just located in the center of China.Moreover,he ordered the ministers to revise Hongwu Zhengyun (Eighty rhymes edition) and Yunhui Dingzheng ,and made Nanjing dialect,the representative of Jianghuai dialects,the basis of Mandarin Chinese.As a result,the Korean envoys and interpreters from the end of Koryo to the beginning of Choseon Dynasty,except Xie Changshou who emigrated from Jiangzuo areas of China,could not communicate smoothly with the emperor and ministers of Ming Dynasty in their Chinese language learnt before.Therefore,Xie Changshou became the chief instructor of Sa Yeok Won(Translation Ministry) and the leader of Sinology in early Choseon Dynasty.The historical records of early Choseon Dynasty also show that in order to maintain good relationships with China,the kings of Choseon repeatedly presented memorials to Chinese emperors to request acceptance of its young people to study in China to master pure Mandarin Chinese. In 1459,Korean version of Hun Min Jeong Eum was collected in the book Wol In Seo Bo .It was pointed out in the first sentence that the so-called Chinese pronunciation was what Korean people termed ''Jiangnan'' dialect,which indicated that in Korean people's eyes at that time the pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese just was identical to that of Jiangzuo dialect.However,Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang took the accent of his hometown as ''Zhongyuan Yayin'' which is somewhat different from Jiangzuo dialect and said that Mandarin Chinese had lost its original pronunciation just because the phonology was originated from Jiangzuo areas instead of traditional Central China areas when he ordered his ministers to compile Hongwu Zhengyun .Therefore,the scholars of Ming Dynasty dared not admit that Nanjiang dialect was Mandarin dialect,although these scholars when inditing poems still followed the ''Shenyun'' originated from Jiangzuo area rather than follow ''Hongwu Yun，''which was merely a dressing and gradually became obsolete.On the contrary,the Jesuits in late Ming and early Qing Dynasty such as Alvaro Semedo commented directly,'' It(Quonhoa,or Mandarin Chinese) is more sweet than harsh,and if it be spoken perfectly,(as it is for the most part,in Nankim) is very delightful to the ear.''

American political philosopher Allan Bloom's TheClosing of the American Mind is an important research book reflecting the crisis of American university education from the philosophical perspective .Its publication was seen as a miracle in the history of serious academic works in the20th century .The author cites the proliferation of relativism and nihilismin American universities,analyzes the sources of crisis from the history of political philosophy based on the profound theories of Strauss School,and lastly proposes the way to restructure the liberal education in American universities .Although Chinese scholars have paid much more attention than before to the neo-conservative doctrine,the Strauss School and the American liberal education and have published papers,their research is not based on a comprehensive knowledge of the ideological origin of liberal education proposed by the Strauss School,which to some extent prevents them from thoroughly understanding Bloom's thoughts on liberal education . According to the Strauss School,the most significant contemporary problems are″the crisis of modernity″and″the crisis of Western civilization .″But they insist that if people want to comprehensively examine the crisis of modernity in the western society,they must deny both the modern liberalism and left-wing academic views,which are rooted in the tradition of modernity,that is,having strong faith in modernity rather than antiquity,or even in the future rather than the present .Contemporary liberal scholars and their left counterparts are all″m odern″o r″progressive people″ who criticize the modernity in the vein of the modern school .The Strauss School argue that a vision beyond the liberalismneeds to be obtained,and they point out that the western classical thought must be just such a vision,especially the vision of what they called″the Plato Al-Farabi Maimonides'p olitical philosophy .″Fully adhering to the Strauss School of thought and research style,Bloomoften searched for inspiration from Socrates,Plato,Machiavelli,Rousseau and Kant,and made insightful academic observations of the U .S .academic community and higher education . The shift from the critique of modernity to that of modern higher education was indicated by the Strauss School,but was pushed forward and completed by Bloom in his book TheClosing of the American Mind .The spread of modern crisis in higher education was the basic proposition of Bloom :relativismand nihilismlead to people's indifference to the history of natural rights and the origin of nation .They do not require the abandonment of old or new beliefs in order to retain the agreed natural rights .They worsen the crisis of faith,result in the widespread failure of the social contract,and create a new split .In all,it is producing spiritual closure and poverty in education . This crisis of modern universities highlights the necessity and urgency of liberal education .In Bloom's view,the core of humanistic education is to help students to explore the eternal theme ″What is man?″to obtain a full and rich understanding of the world as a whole and to inspire students to continuously explore the answers to significant issues .By doing so,holistic and free persons will come into being .Bloom thus argues that universities need to fully understand the importance of the position and role of great classics,take the initiative in providing general education courses,and actively promote elite education .

The teaching of the Six Classics is important for people to gain an insight into Confucian literary theory and its significance,and it has a profound influence on the discourse construction of Confucian literary theory.First of all，the consciousness of Confucian classics established the supreme principles of Confucian literary theory Zongjing'(to follow the Confucian classics)，'Zhengsheng'(to consult the Confucian sage) and 'Mingtao'(to be back to the Confucian Tao).That is why the Confucians dedicated themselves to proving the oneness and coherence of 'Tao'，the Sage'and 'the Classics',and to extracting the stylistic characteristics and text structure by analyzing the texts of the Six Classics.Secondly，'Lixiang Jinyi'(showing images to expound meanings)，'Zhiren Lunshi'(researching the social background in order to make a comment on a person)，'Yiyi Nizhi'(going against the Will via the senses)，and 'Zhiyan Yangqi'(storing up Chi in order to understand words) formed the basic framework of Confucian classical hermeneutics，transformed the values of the Six Classics，and enlightened people to make sense of the artistic essence and construction of literary theory.Finally，the teaching of the Six Classics regulated the value orientation of the Confucian literary theory.In this sense，literature and art could be regarded as an aid，a medium and an approach to make a person a true man.Its cultural function is to create individuals with a moral and rational balance between reason and emotion.

The choice between population reduction or stable population is a critical issue to China. There are two interpretations of the basic national policy—"population control." Basically completed theory advocating stable population is based on the idea that "excessive population growth" has been effectively curbed and is supported by the population-environment equilibrium theory, "zero growth-sustainable population theory," "the pressure of constant population - disappeared theory" and the "demographic winter theory." Basically completed theory is not only untenable but actually harmful—"the constant population - pressure disappears" contributes to misleading results of statistical analysis; "zero growth-sustainable population theory" puts the Chinese nation in a very precarious position; "aging is not the decline of the demographic winter" on the fear syndrome is confusing and misleading; reasonable age structure will generate a "fallacy of composition", and will bring disaster to the country and biosphere. "Far from being completed "emphasizes "population reduction" as the main population development strategy for China. First, land capacity is inversely associated with ecological-environmental stability; a population supported by land productivity does not guarantee continuous equilibrium with the environment. Second, the main issue is scale rather than "equilibrium.” The lengths of stable and continuous (exponentially decreasing or increasing) Systems with different sizes of population (1.5 billion or 200 million) are not the same. Third, the size of the population problem has neither economic, system solution, there was no time to save the nature and dissipation point, matter, energy savings technology solutions-technology "ceiling effect," will enable the technology to solve the "stuck" scale quagmire evolved into the "trap" and "black hole." Fourth, a small population and expansive land is what makes the USA such a dominant world power. Russia’s rise, in addition to its huge amount of oil and gas, can also be attributed to its small population. Fifth, a large scale population not only constitutes the biggest food security challenge for China and presents a persistent threat, but it also reduces the flexibility of the world grain markets to adjust the economic structure. Sixth, “two different choices, two different destinies.” Maintaining a "stable population" of 1.5 billion people is certain to bog China down and may result in the demise of the nation. However, a small-scale population that exhibits the advantages of a smaller demographic base will fundamentally change the basic national conditions of a China plagued by a large population but a weak economic foundation. It would help to ensure food security, increase options and flexibility, and would allow for sustainable development.