This study explores patterns in Chinese publishing before the technological revolution of the late-nineteenthcentury .It centers on thelate Qianlong,Jiaqing andDaoguang reign periods (1796-1850) .The focusis largely on fiction,but I occasionally look beyond that genre by wayof supplementing the discussion .Well before the mechanization that took place when Gutenberg arrived in late-nineteenth century Shanghai,to use Christopher A .Reed's formulation,four changes were underway that point in thedirection of what aregenerallyidentified as later markers of literary modernity .These four are the amount of fictional output,the way it was distributed,the amount of international awareness in the fiction,and the composition of the readership for which it was designed .The existence of these trends prior to the late-nineteenth century revolution in printing technology and,even more,to the early twentieth century changes in education and literary life suggest that,in our efforts to define literary modernity,we should be attentive to continuities as well as to the causal force of sudden outside influences or internal revolutions .

Probably the largest translation enterprise undertaken in China in the nineteenth century was that of Bible translation .Between the 1820s and the 1860s five full translations of the Bible into Chinese were completed and published by the Protestant missions .The Delegates'version which is the subject of this article,involved scores of missionaries and their Chinese assistants .Fierce controversies broke out among the missionaries about methods of translation,particularly about absolute fidelity to the Hebrew and Greek texts versus the need to make the translation acceptable to Chinese readers .A secondarycontroversyconcerned the level of classical Chinese that should be used (translations into vernacular Chinese were not made until later) : should a standard classical Chinese be used,one that educated readers would accept,or a simplified form that the less literate would understand.The champion of acceptabilityand the use of a standard classical Chinese was the missionary Walter Henry Medhurst,who hoped to produce a translation of the Bible that would qualify as Chinese literature . In the Delegates'version,which took from 1843 to1854 to complete,Medhurst at last had the opportunity to put his principles into practice . The essential requirement was to find Chinese collaborators who could put the workof the missionariesandtheirassistantsintoacceptableChineseprose .Hisfirst choice wasWang Changgui,a teacher of the Chinese classics,who died before the New Testament could be finished . Medhurst then engaged Wang Changgui's young son,Wang Tao,as his replacement,and Wang Tao helped to complete the Bible as well as to write tracts and revise a hymnbook . This experience as translator tells us much about the early development of his thinking .

Public speech has a long history in China .It was once used by the Qing Government to publicize ShengyuGuangxun .The Chinese speeches made by Western missionaries changed the attitude,ideas,texture and style of speech-making in the Qing Dynasty .This change is actually the transition from ancient to modern public speech-making .It is also a witness of the transitional role that Western missionaries played in the Chinese speech-making style .

Reducing the range of reference has always been the appointed task of formalist thought . Its attempt was to discipline art criticism in the manner of scientific experiment,through theisolation of a singlevariable .One graver objectionconcerns Greenberg's management of pre-modern art,and this needs discussion because Greenberg's Modernism defines itself in opposition to the Old Masters . If the opposition becomes unstable,Modernism may have to be redefined by other criteria .

With the riseof American minimalism,the radically reductive art of themid-1960's that took to a logical conclusion of the Greenbergian doctrine that painting tended inexorably to approach the condition of absolute flatness,and sculpture that of volumetric clarity,one saw formalism at its most ruthless absolute,and,artistically,one sawacomplete dead end .Thus my criticism is a double critique of Greenberg's theory of modernist painting and of Minimalism's Greenbergian advocacy of literalism .

As the most influential Western art critic in the later half of the 20th century,Clement Greenberg left us with an enormous and precious legacy for contemporary art theories and criticism . He provided the most definitive argumentation in the history of modernist art which became the starting point of discussion about contemporary art theories and criticism . His successors,Leo Steinberg and Michael Fried,either criticize Greenberg in the terms of art history,or advance his theory from the philosophical perspective . Up until now,the issues they raise remain the focus of wide discussions in the field of art history and art theory .

The myth of the liberal media in America has led to a popular public perception that journalists serve as a watchdog of the government for the people .This liberal bias has been challenged by an increasing number of scholars .The case of the mainstream news coverage of the 2007 debate over reauthorization and expansion of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) reveals that journalists slant while framing the news .Over and above the basic question of whether the coverage is explicitly positive or negative,news slant is presented in three further message dimensions .They are : who the asserted beneficiaries of the policy are;what the assertion's basis of reasoning is;and how high the complexity of the argument is .According to the findings,the individualism that dominates American political culture,a relatively unsophisticated,apolitical audience that does not demand complex policy argument,the media's reliance on official sources for information,and the bias toward those officials with the most apparent power toaffect the outcome disadvantaged the proponents of SCHIP expansion from the start .The pro- Administration slant is therefore a result of the interactions of journalistic decision biases with the news management skill wielded by contending teams of media manipulators .

Bakhtin's theory has aroused great concern from various disciplines .In recent years,it has been studied from the perspective of communication,but its research is not sufficient,mostly only in terms of simple analogy and its application . Being important resources of thought and theory in communication field,Bakhtin's theory actually deserves intensive study and its research should be started with its ideological value .Since the 19th century,there has been a problem in communication field arising from the mode of thinkingin isolation and the thinking atmosphere of suspicion and split : thinking about the possibility of the world through communication has become a habit of mind,which is one of the critical consequences in the process of sudden change of modern thoughts . Being an indispensible component of the grand knowledge background,Bakhtin's theory makes many scholars pay attention to the issue of communication and media . The world being determined by technology,Bakhtin's theory of dialogue is in a position to enrich our comprehensive understanding of communication and is of great value and historical significance in our thinking about communication and the world in communication .

The choice theory derived from decision analysis is the foundation for microeconomic theory .With the emergence of complexity science and cognitive psychology,the economic choice theory based on subjective expected utility (SEU) is being challenged . Faced with the complex,uncertain real world,the traditional myopicchoice theoryis insufficient and should be substituted with the theory of plan-based actions . Different from the choice theory that focuses on making single decisions independently,the theory of plan-based actions considers more than one interdependent decision at a time in order to deal with complexity in the real world . When decisions are interdependent,indivisible,irreversible,and imperfectly foresighted,plans are more effective than decisions . For these reasons,it is necessary for us to explore into planning behavior in a systematic way to construct a behavioral planning theory . The research methods adopted include axiomatization,psychological experiments,and computer simulations . Only when we gain a better understanding of the logicof making plans are we able to better achieve the goals in the complex environment and survive .

This paper links metaphor to strategic management,and argues that metaphors play important roles both in constructing theoretical models and in empirically testing strategy theories .We suggest that each theoryin strategic management has its own underlying metaphor . These theories include Position School,Resource-based View and Dynamic Capability Theory,Institution Theory,Evolution and Complexity Theory,and other theories in strategic management . The corresponding metaphors with each theory belong to different paradigms,and can be used to explain distinct organizational strategy phenomena,in a way similar to the statistical a pproach in empirical research . Meanwhile,multi-paradigm metaphors have greater explanatory power than single-paradigm metaphors .It is useful,therefore,to integrate theories in strategy research . The integrating methodology is illustrated by the theory development of combing Resource-based View(RBV) and Institutional Theory (IT) to set up a comprehensive competitive advantage theory . The implications of metaphor for academic diversity and strategic management practice are also discussed .

This paper proposes an incomplete financial contract model and studies what factors affect the financing and locality of an informal financial market . We show that the size of an informal financial market increases with the entrepreneur's initial wealth,project's technological efficiency,probability of success of a good project,outside investor's wealth,and local factors like social conventions,culture and norms . The size decreases under a risk-free interest rate,or when a project's funds can be easily diverted for personal profit .