The book market in Ming Qing China can be studied with four types of information : book prices,cost of printing,book collections,andextant imprints .Each typeof information has its own utility and limitations .It is advisable to use this information appropriately .Knowledge of their specific values and disadvantages will prevent erroneous conclusions . From an iota data on book prices and records of book production,we can reconstruct the range of book prices and cost of book production in the Late Ming Period . From the Wanli Period on,a newly printed single volume book priced at mid-to low-range would not be higher than one tael of silver .Readers had many choices for books priced at the range between0 .1 taeland one tael .Books priced belowone tael were affordable not only to wealthy merchants and the gentry but also to poor literati and ordinary artisans . Imprints had become a common commodity ordinary people could afford to buy . As the economy expanded,urbanization accelerated,and educational opportunities increased,printed books circulated widely throughout the empire .

After the late Ming Dynasty,unlike the illustrations being merely accessories of writings in the past,pure″picture books″t hat mainly consisted of pictures began to be published widely . We can see such examples in the various fields,like Lidai Guren Xiangzan,Ming Zhuangyuan Tukao,Jinling Tuyong,Tangshi Huapu,etc . In China,books with illustrations had been regarded as vulgar and most of the books consisted merely of words .Therefore,thefact that illustrations began to be added to books and there even appeared books containing mainly pictures later on suggests a big change in the history of Chinese books . This change can certainly be regarded as thepopularization of the″refined″books that formerly belonged to theliteraticlass . Books with illustrations published in earlier times,such as Quanxiang Pinghua in the Yuan Dynasty,were intended for the common people . However,if we examine the picture books published in the late Ming Dynasty,we can find″refined″works of very high level with the development of the engraving techniques at that time . These works were all intended to cater for a high-level reader market .Nonetheless,observed fromanother angle,readers of Tangshi Huapu and Shiyu Huapucanalsobe said to belower-level readers,or middle-level readers,incomparison with readers who were able to appreciate poetry without help of illustrations . Therefore,concerning the book market in the late Ming Dynasty,it is necessary to take into consideration both layers of popularization (vulgarization) and gentrification (refinement) .″Picture books″h ad a very close connection with such newly emerged readers in the late Ming Dynasty .

Chinese characters are considered as an adaptable system,open to expansion and revision . Throughout history,the creation of new characters was one of the most important solutions toenlargements of theconceptual repertoire .Both scholars of″D utch Learning″in Japan and missionaries active in nineteenth-century China used Chinese characters in their translations of western concepts . From a methodological point of view,Japanese scholars mostly coined compound words rendering the literal meanings of their terms of departure while translators in China,invigorated by the success of the new characters devised for chemical elements,believed that drafting new characters was more in line with the characteristics of the Chinese language . However,notwithstanding the painstaking efforts with which they were created,the new characters proposed by missionaries were eventually replaced by compound terms first used in Japanese adaptations . This paper examines the different practices and attitudes of Chinese and Japanese authors toward thecreation of newcharacters as a method of translation .Analyzing the  influence of their divergent approaches on the lexical systems of their respective languages,since Chinese has a very limited number of phonetic patterns,I conclude that it is impossible to create viable technical terminologies only by increasing new characters .

The Bologna Process is the most important event of the development of European universities in the recent 10 years .As oneof the first advocates and participants,Italy has activelyinvolveditself in the Bologna Process and regardedit as avital opportunity to reformits university system .The reformis due not only to the history but also to the socioeconomic development of Italy . Since Italy realized its unification in 1861,its university system has developed from elite to massification,from decentralization to centralization .The university reformin 1980s focused on enhancing the autonomy of universities and improving the quality of universities .The issue of the Zecchino Regulation is regarded as a milestone to the development of universities,followed by innovative reforms :establishing a credit system based on the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS);resetting the curriculum for undergraduate students;introducing the″3+2″d egree system;carrying out the″Y″s ystem;implanting the Diploma Supplement;etc. These reforms have made a far-reaching impact on the development of Italian universities .

The project of philosophy is fundamentally a trial to ascertain insights concerning basic ontological,epistemological and normative questions,and to express such insights adequately,thereby making them approachable and arguable in an intersubjective way . Philosophy in a technical sense in the Axial Age is neither the unique outcome of only one-say,the Greek or Occidental-heritage,nor must we assume that it can be found in the traditions of all and every societies or cultures . By the process of modernization and globalization the necessity is given to promote or at least to develop common ideas . The fundamental question about philosophy in such a situation consists in the need to question about the conditions of the possibility of systematic  philosophy with the presupposition that there are different cultural coinages in every philosophical thinking whichcan beinfluentialon everylevel of reflectionandargumentation as follows : (1) the dilemma of culturality of philosophy;(2) types of cultural centrism;(3) tolerance and beyond . From the aspect of cultural centralism,cultural tolerance and beyond,human beings will continue to reason for their convictions,and will try to convince each other . Therefore,cultivation of something,as it is intended in the model of polylogues,is a primary task in philosophy .